Strategic Communication

Dr. Caven Masuku ( PhD in Corporate Communication) Historic evolution of strategic communication The historical development of strategic communication and public relations, precisely balance and unify interests of an organisation and the public (Kristensen, 2010). Langer (2005:19) argued that this expansion and the adaptation of strategic communication to many different spheres of society as well as to a variety of academic discipline makes it difficult to arrive at a clear definition and mutual understanding of the sector’s professional identity. The ambiguous professional status adds to difficulties of strategic communication in gaining respect and power both in society at large and within organisational hierarchies (Grunig 2000; Berger, 2007). According to Steyn (2007:143), “In the strategic management literature, communication is regarded as an enabling function, facilitating the successful implementation of strategic decision.” In practice, studies reflect that strategic management and strategic communication are by no means integrated, and communication initiatives frequently become reactive routines (Davis, 2007). The strategic communicationtheory gives explanation on how organisations in the 21st century use and expanding variety of methods to influence the behaviours of their constituencies. What people know, how people feel, and the way people act relatively to the organisation (Hallahan, Holtzhausen, Van ruler, Verčič & Sriramesh, 2007). Hallahan (2004) suggests that strategic communication scholars can recognise that purposeful influence is the fundamental goal to communications by organisations. Some forms of communication are grounded merely in protecting information (technical communication), others are concerned with maintaining mutual satisfaction relationship (public relations). But all these, are not enough to achieve strategically important goals. Therefore, strategic communication focuses on communication that contributes to organisations purpose for being. Falkheimer (2014:124) observed that the overall aim of “strategic communication” is to enforce, shape or defend the legitimacy of organisations (between managers and workers), as well as that between organisations and society. Christensen et al. (2008:2) says that strategic or corporate communication “is a mindset, a certain way of thinking about and approaching communication as strategic management function that embraces all the organisation’s communication activities.” The development of strategic communication as a management function and process has strong support also among practitioners, according to empirical research (Tench et al., 2013). Contemporary managers in post-bureaucratic organisations are supposed to be strategic communicators of vision, values and goals as well as facilitators of organisational change (Heide & Simonsson, 2011). Strategic communication concentrates on the core drivers of organisational success. It also expands the traditional set of institutionalised communication measures in order to manage meaning in all kinds of interactions with internal and external stakeholders (Zerfass & Huck 2007). Strategic communication as an emerging paradigm is perceived as professional communication involving organisations. There is no single overarching conceptual framework to inform the work of many disciplines relating to the field of strategic communication (Hallahan et al., 2007). Hallahan (2004) discovered that corporations worldwide recognised that different communication discipline share common purpose and that their objectives and strategies are similar. Organisations seek integration as well as maintaining effectiveness through synergy, enhanced efficiencies and reduced redundancies. Strategic communication management is well thought of as integrating practitioners in areas such as corporate and internal communication, human resources, knowledge management and intranets, and corporate social responsibility. Strategic communication from an academic perspective The term ‘strategic communication’ has been used in academic research for many years and scholars are now in the process of exploring coherently this in terms of a unified body of knowledge (Hallahan et al., 2007). In this study, strategic communication is examined as a social phenomenon, particularly how it is applied in today’s society and how it relates to other communication disciplines. The researcher deconstructs the term “strategic communication” to determine whether it necessarily implies manipulative or deviant communication practices that allows for alternative, critical readings that accommodate many different types of scholars. Hallahan et al. (2007) declare that the term ‘strategic’ was first used in organisation theory in the 1950s and its purpose was to describe how organisations compete in the market place, obtain competitive advantage and gain market share (in its negative sense, the term compete in the market place, obtain competitive advantage and gain market share is understood as having originated in warfare and is in its strictest sense defined as the art of war). On the other hand, the term ‘strategic’ is associated with power and decision making (Jamali & Carroll, 2017). The interpretation of ‘strategic’ allows students of strategic communication to explore links between culture, communication and organisation change. De Klerk and Verwey (2013) note that although strategic communication emphasizes the role of communication as management practice, it does not necessarily imply power and control of management over stakeholders. It allows study of participatory communication practices that include stakeholder communication, change management, and complex analysis of stakeholder environments (Zarfass & Huck, 2007). ‘Strategic commmunication’, further includes the study of all communication practices, including public relations, advertising, and marketing as well as others (De Klerk & Verwey, 2013). Given the above argumentation, strategic communication is a unifying paradigm for studying purposeful communications by organisations to provide an important opportunity to reinvigorate and refocus on how organisations present and promote themselves in interacting with their audiences (Hallahan et al., 2007). Steyn and De Beer (2012) say strategic communication is a scientific worldview or paradigm that conceptualises communication management in the strategic context of the organisation. Farewell (2012) states that strategic communication originated from programs used in governmental and military domains a process that sprout from an organisational strategic plan to fulfil two-way communication in the organisation and the community. Verwey (2015) notes that strategic communication allows two-way communication, opportunities to listen to stakeholders and innovative and engaging opportunities to obtain valuable information from stakeholders. Karagoz (2015) says strategic communication is a strategy that influences attitude and behaviour. Strategic communication is not a passive, source-based communication process conveying the most favourable messages to the concerned audiences that aims to inform public opinion. It is, in fact, an active communication process based on sharing determined messages with the public opinion in the frame of vision and goals, influencing and manipulating the perception of public opinion positively (Ozkan, 2015). Some disciplines such as public relations, information management, public diplomacy, media, perception and reputation management are employed integrally in the strategic communication practices (Guncan, 2010). Onat (2012) posits that in strategic communication, there is a determined super-ordinate goal, target and a variety to gain that independence from communication processes. De Klerk and Verwey (2013) state that strategic communication embodies planning, developing tactics, correcting coding to provide effective perception of the message, conveying it to the targeted audiences in smooth and effective manner using the most developing technology. Research findings from a study conducted by Tindall and Holtzhausen (2011) suggest that strategic communication can be viewed as a common denominator for all forms of communication practices across different contexts. Deetz(2001) indicates that part of the problem with the term ‘strategic’ is that it has previously been positioned within management discourses as an intentional rational basis for decision making, and for predicting and controlling the destiny of your organisation (De-Klerk & Verwey, 2013). Strategic communication sits at the intersection of management strategy and communication, and is believed to be relatively underdeveloped in research (Stephen & Thomas, 2015). Both strategic and modern communication scholarship are relatively new in the social sciences. Argenti, Howell and Beck (2005:83) define strategic communication as “aligned with the company’s overall strategy, to enhance its strategic positioning.” Stephen and Thomas (2015) states that strategic management is defined as the process by which general managers of complex organisations develop and use strategy to co-align their organisation’s competences and the opportunities and constraints in the environment (Jemison, 1981). Strategic communication enables gathering, understanding, and interpreting the often conflicting expectations of specific stakeholders (Steyn & Beer, 2012). In a post-modernist era, strategic communication provides corporations with societal (outside in) perspectives by feeding intelligence with regard to strategic stakeholders and societal issues. Strategic communication in the postmodernism era enables communication by corporations to ensure inclusiveness of all voices that are affected by the organisation to the benefit of stakeholders and the organisation (Steyn & Beer, 2012:4). De Klerk and Verwey (2013) argued that postmodernism is regarded as a critical perspective that moves away from idealism and is characterised by ‘pluralism’, temporality, fragmentation, de-differentiation and ambiguity, all of which defy attempts to generalise and extrapolate from past experience. Verčič and Sriramesh (2007) assert that strategic communication is the purposeful use of communication by an organisation to fulfil its mission. It can be argued that although the roles of communication as management practice, it does not necessarily imply power and control of management over stakeholders. Zarfass and Huck (2007:107) state that “strategic communication concentrates on the core drivers of organisational success.” It also expands the traditional set of institutionalised communication measures in order to manage meaning in all kinds of interactions with intended and external stakeholders. Tindall and Holtzhausen (2011:75) suggest that strategic communication can be perceived as a “common denominator for all forms of communication practice across different contexts.” Strategic communication deals with communication management and itsbehavioural strategic management paradigm focuses on participation of public relations executives in strategic decision-making so that they assist inmanaging the behaviour of an organisation. It is less documented in developing nations how mining organisationsfulfill their mission of sustainability with host communities. Further, strategic communication for sustainability stakeholder relationships is a grey area in developing countries as most studies conducted are indeveloped nations. Strategic communication, it can be argued, is purposeful communication that recognises various communication functions differentiated by tactics that share common purposes and similar goals and strategies (Overton-de Klerk & Verwey, 2013). Wang (2007) regards strategic communication as a single coordinated effort in which all communication activities are integrated to create synergy. Judging from the above, strategic communication is broad in scope. Existing knowledge from conducted studies in Europe admit that the concept of strategic communication has become broader in its application, since products and services are developed in consumers’ minds due to the results of any interactions for business purposes (Wand, 2007). Strategic communication is an emerging and over-riding, converging communication function of the organisation, which can be informational, persuasive, discursive and relational to an organisations’ mission (Overton-de Klerk & Verwey, 2013). Further, strategic communication is evolving and an emerging process of discourse and negotiations intended to create buy-in from the facilitation of discussion and discourse for change to evolve, bottom-up and spontaneously, out of the communication process (Stroh 2007). Rensburg (2012) says the bottom-up approach is the new emphasis on organisational listening and embedding, particularly on the side of leaders. This is relevant in that it educates the researcher on how effective strategic communication can be to an organisation communication with both internal and external stakeholders. There is a gap in that, most of the examples cited are from developed countries. In strategic communication there is a shift of power and control from management to individual stakeholders, allowing them to make decision based on the value systems they are able to support (Overton-de Klerk & Verwey, 2013). In developing nations, it is not known how mining organisation engage with the poor communities where they do business, neither is it understood how they listen to the communities complains if at all. All the above scholars’ contribution are important in reflecting the changes brought by strategic approach to communication and how ritual communication, which is two-way, is important and enhanced for sustainable development by the mining corporation with the community near their station. Furthermore, strategic communication in post bureaucratic context acknowledges and fosters multiple propositions and perceptions so as to allow for conflict and rhetoric that ultimately advance the organisation, to the benefit of all stakeholders (Janssens & Zanoni, 2005). According to Holmnan, Devane and Candy (2007), strategic communication enhances high involvement. It is a systemic approach to improvement, where high involvement means engaging stakeholders in changing their own system. There are some terms that are sometimes used which are synonymous to strategic communication such as public relations, professional communication, organisational communication, spin, information work, and even marketing (Kristensen, 2010). The above terms overlap, especially given that strategic communication is decorated with different sub-categories which are both an academic field of emerging field drawn from several traditions (Langer, 2005; Jansen 2002), and as a “profession” or practice that is still developing (Pieczka. 2000, 2002). Strategic communication is a concept that is understudied in developing nation, especially on how it can be used for sustainable stakeholder relationships. Further, it is not known how strategic communication is an overlap with public relations for both academic and professional reasons. Scholars cited in this paragraph are relevant in that they elaborated extensively on the core issues that should be taken serious when discussing on strategic communication. The knowledge gained from all cited scholars enriches the study by enabling the understanding of involvement of all stakeholders in changing the system of sustainability to benefit the surrounding communities through systemic approach which is ritual and not one way. Strategic communication, unlike political communication, corporate communication, organisational communication, or professional communication is not narrow (Kristensen 2010; Dalfet et al., 2001; Fober, 2000). Strategic communication has developed and expanded considerably during the 20th century (Toth2006; Wright & Turk 2007; Ottesting 2002 & Pieczka 2000). Media centric and management inspired paradigm have dominated the academic approach to strategic communication (Pieczka 2002). The academic disciplines such as political science, cultural studies, law, medicine, management and the natural science have integrated strategic communication into their research and education programmes (Langer 2005; Stromback et al 2008). Strategic communication is based on a flexible theory whose core aim has a double conflicting nature concerning the relation of professions to the state and the market (Kristensen, 2010). On the other hand, strategic communication complies with the functionalistic, altruistic idea that places clients and the public good at the professional work (Laursen et al 2004). This theory is relevant to the study as it would allow the study to analyse and understand sustainability for stakeholder relationships from both an academic and professional context. Judging from the above, it can be observed that strategic communication has two starting points for research which could either be from an organisational perspective, meaning that strategic communication is related to significance to organisational effectiveness, cultural management and governance. On the other hand, strategic communication can be on societal perspective, which means that strategic communication is analysed based on its consequences for social change, public opinion or behaviour, democracy and culture (Falkheimer 2014: 124). The “strategic” in strategic communication The question being asked may be why “strategic” applied in conjunction with communication to describe current communication practices in society in general and organisations in particular. The term “strategic” is problematised by many scholars and is associated with the modernist approach to management. Deetz (2001) argued that critics of this approach perceive strategic communication as a privilege to management discourse and emphasises upper management’s goals for the organisation as a given and legitimate. The term strategic implies that organisations and their functions are evaluated in terms of economic contribution and rational to economic goals. Strategic operate in the pretext that make the role of communication in a modernist approach a approach that enable information transfer from the supervisor to the subordinate in order to gain compliance and to initiate networks that reinforce the organisation’s power in relations with the public. This study benefited by drawing knowledge on how Holtzhausen’s (2008) claims that strategic communication covers the full spectrum of economic and social sector such as trade and industry, politics, non-profit and governmental agencies, activist groups, even celebrities in the sports and entertainment industries. Critique of strategic communication theory Norms for strategic communication are influenced by socially constructed standards of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and guide how strategic communication fosters organisation public relations (Lock et al., 2016). “Astroturfing,” is an activity which the organisation subsidizes the lobbying cost of a sympathetic special interest group after the organisation learns the state of the world (Lyon & Maxwell, 2004:573), that comprise of grassroots-based citizen groups that are conceived, initiated by corporations, industry trade associations, political interests or public relations firm (Sourcewatch, 2013). Instead of being authentic, transparent, and deliberative, front groups are used to claim about an organisation, other matters in a manner deliberatively and manipulatively disguising (Mckie, 2013). New communication technologies and social media, increases the use of astro-turfing in a seemingly legitimate organisations with little more than socially mediated presentation (Hick & McNutt, 2002). Astroturfing is a fake imitation that makes something to appear “real”, a narrative of something that is not what it seems. Synthetic turf and astroturf originated in the 1970s in the United States of America (Irmisch, 2011). It does not grow naturally but it is manufactured and has to be installed. Thus, it becomes a metaphor for certain public affairs activities that have spread globally. Research conducted in USA, Germany and Switzerland demonstrate how strategic communications undermines OPRs potential to add value that strategic communication need to be vigilant resisted against such tactics that cause organisations to lose their license to operate.

Tough to understand journalism in twenty century

JOURNALISM is a profession that is as old as humankind and requires those who practice it to be fair, truthful, and objective among other principles that it demands. It is interesting to re-think this beautiful and critical profession in the twenty-first century due to technological advancement and social media platforms that cut across geographical boundaries. The internet and its other integrated components have brought some changes not only to forms of communications but also to journalism as a discipline and profession worth respect. The citizens have been democratised to tell their plight in the comfort zone of their locale without omission or commission of facts. Gate-keeping which is a process of protecting certain critical information to be consumed by the public domain is being done by an individual, rather than a professional editor like what is done by most media houses in conventional media setup. Internet and social media platforms have provided avenues like blogs, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and many others to mention, which do not limit cascading of information by a few tried and tested individuals belonging to certain media houses who call themselves “journalists”. In the twenty-first century, everyone has the right and freedom to generate, process, and disseminate information will nil. The danger we all face as citizens across the globe is the lack of security as we are exposed to harassment of some kind in various forms online. Those with a bad mind whose thrust is to bring others down, use the internet, mobile technology, and social media to turn the reputation of others. Internet and social media are valued for enabling the less privileged to fight for their rights, by exposing those who ill-treat them. I witnessed many times those holding public offices being exposed for corruption, short-changing, social immoral practices, and all despicable doing. On the other hand, privacy is trading on a thin line as individuals can easily share their privacy in the virtual sphere, sometimes with visible evidence that cannot be refuted. Mobile technology, which has become more private than human privates is also causing chaos in most communities which sometimes results in divorce, murder, misunderstanding, fights, and mistrust among the community members. Convergence which is the process that enables these gargets to be merged and complement each other in producing, processing, and sending rich content in the form of audios, videos, pictures, and so forth is a concept that can be likened to polygamy, where an individual can be married or committed to several spouses. Mobile technology has made communication to be a farce in many ways as it enables citizens including reputable journalists to create content and send it across the globe through WhatsApp, internet facilities like electronic mail, blogs, YouTube, and social media platforms. However, despite all the goodies associated with mobile technology citizens have been corrupted to the core and sometimes use technological gadgets destructively instead of constructively. Well those studying or who studied journalism or media would agree that it is good to know and to be guided by online ethics always when posting content using the internet or social media. Some may argue further that it is good to know ethics, but they do not apply practical always in dealing with certain online content. Privacy is one important online ethic to be respected always, but what is private may be of interest to share online with the rest. It is a fact that people have the right to some privacy, even online. On the other hand, someone may argue that people in general also have the right to know things that are interesting. Journalism is a funny profession that makes news to be juicy, especially on issues that may be avoided to be known by many. In ancient times such interesting and critical information could be suppressed through bribes which in the twenty-first century is difficult if not impossible to do. Information zooms like a bullet to a different individuals across the globe through WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter, Blogs, and electronic mail, despite efforts by the concerned persons to suppress it. We are not safe if the truth is to be told in the twenty century as technological experts may spy on your mobile phone, email, and social media platforms in search of juicy information in all forms. There is a new concept called “citizen Journalism” which is necessitated by new technologies that make ordinary citizens be active and able to become journalists. Perhaps what should be ringing in someone’s mind and problematised is how safe are we in communities if citizens become journalists. Trust is something that has always been problematic, as some do not even trust their shadow let alone another citizen. Journalism as a profession has become toxic and we need to be careful of what we do with our gadgets despite being private to us, as sometimes this exposes us further to dangerous individuals in the community whose sole thrust always is to sow chaos in the society. The citizens perhaps are happy as they could now free to express themselves and reveal those who are threatening them, which sometimes makes journalism itself to be less respected and difficult to practice in this modern society. It would be a welcome move to hear your views on how Journalism is practiced and valued as a critical profession without pausing challenges in the advent of technology.

Similarities and differences between advertising and propaganda

The term propaganda which is highly contested by many scholars from both the Global North and Global South can be defined as the technique of influencing human action by the manipulation of representation (Lasswell (1927) cited in Severin and Tankard 1988:91). These representations may be spoken, written, pictorial or in a musical form. This makes one to conclude that propaganda is information often inaccurate or biased, which a political organisation, individual publishes or broadcasts in order to influence people. On the other hand, Jowett and O’Donnell (1992:1) argued that propaganda is a form of communication that is different from persuasion, because it attempts to achieve a response that furthers the desired interest of the propagandists. To them, persuasion is transitive and attempts to satisfy the needs of both persuader and persuadee (advertising). From this definition, it can be observed that public opinion and behaviour change can be affected by propaganda. Some scholars viewed “propaganda” as inherent thought and practice in mass culture. This is strongly supported by perception that propaganda functions as purveyor of ideology that is the dominant ideological meaning which is constructed within the mass media. Burnett (1989) viewed propaganda as communication and persuasion. The two terms could be used interchangeably both in literature and communication. The word “advertising” is defined by Biagi (1999) as, any paid form of non personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsor. In this pretext advertising carries the message that comes to you from the people who pay for it. Like propaganda, advertisement can appear in newspapers, books, magazines, radio, television and social media. It could be argued that like advertising, propaganda is communication that can appear in ora-media, print media and electronic media. Boorstein (1998) says the word “advertise” originally meant to take note or to consider. By 1700’s Boorstein asserts that meaning of the word “advertising “ had changed its meaning. To advertise in America shares three characteristics namely, repetition, style and ubiquity. The word style was the coined by Hopkins (1998) as, brilliant writing, which has no place in advertising hence “one should be natural and simple… fishing for buyers, as in fishing for bass, one should not reveal the hook”. Advertising is similar to propaganda as justifies by Fletcher (1988) who says that, in both disciplines the “message is specified by its originator, carried by communication systems and intended to influence and or inform an unknown audience. In support of this view, Severin and Tankard (1988), discussed advertising within the context of propaganda. Propaganda like advertising shapes public opinion and sways the masses towards almost any point of view desired by the communication. For instance, in a rally politicians can use propaganda to further their ideology, control and shape the masses attitudes, ideas and behaviour. The same applies to advertising, where an advertisement can be used to control and shape attitude, ideas and behaviour of the masses. Albeit that both propaganda and advertising can be inaccurate or biased, propaganda is mostly used by politicians rather than business. Gordon (1999) argued that truth is not appropriate ethical norm to apply to advertising and propaganda. In both advertising and propaganda is used as a tool by the dominant class who own businesses and control production. In both the dominant class can perpetuate their ideology, hegemony that is the way one thinking and feel about things and further their political interests. Jacques Ellul (1965) focused on the techniques of propaganda and advertising, notably psychological manipulation, which in technological societies, has certain identical results. Qualter (1962) is perhaps, in this essay the only scholar who claims that unlike advertising which is mainly to present and promote ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsor. Propaganda is a deliberately and systematic attempt to shape perception, manipulate, cognite and direct behaviour to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist. It can be concluded that, while advertising creates images that sells products and services, propaganda creates images that manipulate individuals and services the political interests. Severin and Tankards (1998) posits that both advertising and propaganda are a form of persuasion that is subjective. Again it can be deduced that while propaganda is associated with politics, advertising is associated with economics. References Jowett.G.S and O’Donnell.V. (1992). Propaganda and Persuasion. Second Edition. London. Sage Publication. Biagi.S. (1998). Media Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media. New York: Wadsworth. University of Illions Press. Severin, W.J and Tankard. J.W. (1998). Communication Theories: Origins Methods and Uses in The Mass Media. London. Longman. Carver.D.J., Michael.J and Cameron.J. (1974). Collins English Learners Dictionary. London. Collins and Glasgow. Gordon.A., David and Kittress. J.M. (1999). Controversies in Media Ethics. New York.

English for specific purpose and its four levels

English for Specific Purpose (ESP) can be defined as an approach to language teaching based on the learners needs. ESP is a closely matching teaching content to learners’ requirements (McDonough 1984). She further argued that, ESP courses are those where the syllabus and material are determined in all essentials by the prior analysis of communication needs of the learners needs. However, this represents a limited views of ESP, which she goes on to say refers to “ a plethora of approaches, trend and methodologies based on increasingly sophisticate views of “language”, “communication needs, language skills and so on”. Judging from this observation it can be asserted that ESP is an academic and professional learning in which a supply of language, communicative competences, skills and set methods used for study in an institution should be much greater than one can deal with. It can be observed that ESP is devoted to fulfil the needs of students and as emerging from the need to cope with certain aspects of the language which are closely related to very specific areas of knowledge and their practical application in professional life (Sales 1994:325). This need creates solidarity, meaning, commitment and productivity among learners, therefore leading to English for Academic Purpose (EAP) and English for Occupational Purpose (EOP). EAP and EOP leads the learners to types of ESP like English for Science and technology (EST), English for Business and Economics (EBE), English for Social Sciences (ESS) and English Language Teaching (ELT), leading to four types of ESP. Oladeyo (1994:298) argued that ESP ideally presupposes that the curriculum, syllabus, contents, materials, and teaching activities used for a given purpose should not be adapted to another without first carrying our necessary modifications. What Oladeyo is saying is that a course that has been for teaching language in one subject area cannot be implemented in another without first taking into account the language skills specific to the latter area and making changes to the course accordingly. One can surmise that, ESP is more of an approach to language teaching, the focus of which is the need of the learners, rather than a particular language teaching method. Hutchinson and Waters (987:19) had to say the following about ESP, “…is not a particular kind of language or methodology, or does it consist of a particular types of teaching material”. Understood properly, it is an approach to language learning which based on learners need. It is an approach to language teaching in which all decision as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning. From the above claims it can be deduced that ESP goes beyond the sentence, that is rhetorical or discourse analysis. ESP courses in institutional curriculum create a great need of understanding on how sentences were combined in discourse to produce meaning. The need to identify the organisational patterns in texts and to specify the linguistic means by which these patterns were signalled ensured that these forms would then form the syllabus of ESP courses. In ESP the rhetorical structuring of science text is different from that of commercial text. The discourse of subject-specific academic texts are or were also used to make observation about general discourse to determine the learners needs, thus teaching material based on the discourse approach teach students to recognise textual patterns and discourse markers, mainly by means of text diagramming exercise. There are at least five types of ESP courses which can be studied. The write will discuss the characteristics of only four, which are as follows; EST, EBE, ESS and EAP. (EST) stands for English for Science and Technology, (EBE) stands for English for Business and Economics, (ESS) stands for English for Social Sciences and (EAP) is English for Academic Purpose. English for Science and Technology (EST) is defined by Richard (1976) as concerned with understanding, describing, and explaining the nature of universe. Scientific English assumed that it is used to describe natural phenomena and tends to make wide use of words of Greek and Latin origin. Their meaning are standardised internationally, as well as various, similarly recognised symbols and conventions associated with mathematics concepts. In (EST) the English used is more difficult to understand. Therefore this type of ESP has been criticised for its content which is easier to learn than the English in which it is couched. It is strongly argued that EST has more passive construction than active, “the most prevalent of these are impersonal passive such as, It was observed that… or it should be noted that…” (Huggins 1985:31). In addition, the modal auxiliaries like, “may and should” are widely used. This type of (ESP) seems to be only imparting knowledge of the subject without concerning themselves with skills that the learner needs in order to learn and apply those concepts effectively. Furthermore, on the other hand, technology is “concerned much on how to design, operate and control machines, devices and instruments. Richard (1976) notes that technological English tends to use special vocabulary which are cumbersome for one who is not in that field to know the meaning of it, figures and mathematical symbols which also are difficult to master, to describe technological objects and concepts. For instance, “the total wrk done during the cycle can be presented scientifically as follows: W=w1+w2+w3+w4 W1=12, W2=23, W3=34, W4=41 Holdings (1997:12) states that, “English for Science and Technology is concerned with statement of general truth with description of processes, properties or functions, with deduction and hypothesis. In any case EST may be either for academic or occupational purpose. Hence (EST) is a leading source of international communication which uses diagrams, symbols and English Language which is tailor-made for that field. English for Business and Economics (EBE), is essential especially to business and women which improves skills required for conducting business. According to Holden (1977:12), “… these skills will be as varied as they are for students of science”. The business person needs English for Occupational Purpose (EOS) and English for Academic Purpose (EAP). The good example to support this assertion can be reflected below as follows; Feelings about business prospects in the next year % YEARS 2001 2000 1999 1998 Strongly Positive 44 69 58 64 Moderately Positive 50 31 32 43 Neutral 3 0 7 0 Moderately/Strong Negative 3 0 3 0 Attitude survey of senior agency executives The above example is from the AdFocus?Supplementary to the Financial Mail/May 18 (2001:49) South Africa, shows us that (EBE) uses diagrams, figures and English language as used in international commerce, industry and administration. The (EBE) uses several modes of communication, which appears in form of oral, group, intercultural and written communication. The purpose of the course is to increase competence and performance in business communication. The (EBE) need to be used by well informed people. Not all the people can work out the meaning of (EBE) language. Ambiguities are the major problem. English for Social Science (ESS), which is the third type of ESP is sometimes referred to in the literature. It can be used for cultural orientation of students who study special subjects in English. Like English for Science and Technology (EST) and English for Business and Economics (EBE), it uses language which is recognised countrywide. As pointed by McDonough (1984), it can be used to closely matching teaching content to learner’s requirements. (ESS) can be used both for Academic and Occupational purpose. This course has the strength of creating individuals who are well informed, proficiency and committed in their field of specialisation. For example, English students at University level can be perceived as people who are well articulated in the language use and are communicative competent. Since it can be viewed a used for Academic Purpose it helps to impart knowledge as well as skills. It also reinforces professionalism, thereby promoting productivities among graduates as well as to individual. On the other hand, it instils a certain ideology in the mind of certain people, who can hardly accept change. For example, it discourages multi-tasked individuals who cannot participate in all courses, but have only one field. Again language varies from one society to another and from individual to another. Hence the same word can mean different things. For example, if one talks about the term, “minutes”, to the secretary it means a recording of proceedings of a meeting, to a businessman it means the official notes authorising action. The fourth type of ESP which is English for Academic Purpose (EAP) is taught at school and tertiary level as support system for students who are second language users of English. Kenned and Bolitho (1984) says, “Within educational institutions as a support system. EAP can be used alongside other studies or before. For example at Zimbabwe open University (ZOU), students in Bachelor for English and Communication Studies (BAECS) are taught to be professionals in English and Communications. This helps students as well as other individuals to be conversant in English as a second language. Rivers (1993:331) says that, “ as effective ESP course is one which produces learners who in the end are capable of communicating as a high level in the targeted language, conduct negotiations, explaining processes and procedures, extracting meaning from reports, instruction and scientific articles, conveying accurate information in writing. At tertiary level, EAP courses produces graduates who can communicate effectively in English, business field, science and technology and social sciences. Under this course individuals can communicate effectively in different setting, whether social and occupational. In higher learning institutions like universities and colleges lectures are good examples of English for Academic Purpose. The deliver lectures using perfect English Language. It creates areas of specialisation which is an advantage in the capitalist system in our contemporary society. Hence professionals like Journalists, Economists, Psychologists, Historians, Scientists, Sociologists, Geologists and many more to mention. It also helps to classify people in different social echelons. It acts negatively on the other hand to the non-literate people. One need to be learned to fit well to ESP four levels and to promote their discipline linguistically to enhance effective communication and professionalism both from the Global North and the Global South. It can be concluded that ESP result in the development of language control proceeds through creativity, which is nurtured by interactive, participatory activities. Mountford (1988:78) asserts that ESP, concerns itself mainly with the most effective ways in which language can be used in specific academic or occupational situation. References: Dube, C. M, (2004). English for Specific Purpose and Communication: ZOU University, Zimbabwe, Harare. Holden, S (ed), (1977). English for Specific Purpose, Modern English Publication. LDT Mansfield. Hutchinson, J. and Waters, A, (1987). English for Specific Purpose: A Learning Centred Approach, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Kerr, J. (1969). Changing the Curriculum, London, Hodder and Straighton. Klein, W. (1986). Second Langauge Acquisition, Britain, Cambridge University Press. Owen, R.G. (1993). Organisational Behaviour in Education. 8th Edition, London, Allyn and Bacon. Stravens, P. (1980). Teaching English as an International Language. From Practice to principle, Pergamum Press. Oxford. Oladyo, J. (1904). Teaching ESP in Developing Multilingual Societies in Brekke M et al (eds), pp. 298-312. McDonough.J. (1984). ESP in Perspective. London. Collins ELT. Rivers, W.M. (1993). Communicating in a second Lan

Pathisa Nyathi at 70: The big interview

Media relation

Media relations is a cumbersome subject to “get your arms around”, in public relations. The media rather may help to create and sustain the image of your corporation. Media relations are the relationship between practitioners in public relations and those in the media. A big part of this rapport is the recognition that you have a job to do as Public relations personnel and so do they the media personnel. Normally the press is neither friendly nor hostile. The media personnel are there to get juicy news to inform and attract readers. Those who work well with the media can get their clients billions of dollars of free publicity. The media is not a simple uniform tool; there are multiple types of media very different from one another. The electronic media has never been less respected, yet it has never been so powerful. The media is as powerful as the government and have power to build and sustain an organisation or person and at the same time destroy a person. Knowing what reporters and producers want involves experience and that experience is continuous. Keep up with who’s who in the media both print and electronic and figure out what turns them on and off. Communication experts from various organisations use press conference and press release. A press conference unlike press release is that it enables ACTUALITY-video clip or audio-for the electronic media. For print media the conference gives reporters an orderly environment for face to face interrogation. A press kit should contain relevant items for the media personnel like announcement, appointment of a new Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and biography of the new executive.

Vox pop and clarity in radio broadcasting

Vox pop (populi) is a Latin abbreviation that means “the voice of the people”. In radio broadcasting the term “vox pop” means various people’s voices, expressing few reactions to the news. In broadcasting one of the golden rules is that vox pop must be relevant, and not done to simple fill air time Radio broadcasting focusing on the key local issues can use vox pop in their news item to reflect peoples feeling over an issue that affects them in the community. The reporter should pose a single question to various individuals in the street. It is important to ensure that local accents are represented in a vox pop. As a reporter you should be open to what you are doing and tell people that their views are important. If people are not willing to talk do not force them, but rather respect their will. Sometimes the response one get from people may not be polite and against the reporters expectations. The reporter should always smile and avoid arguing. Those who are not willing to participate should be respected. Recording of a vox pop should be done in a less noisy place to avoid an uncomfortable background as this may distract people’s utterances to be captured. Clarity in radio broadcasting is important as listeners cannot go back over to listen. The presenter must be clear and avoid rushing. Pronunciation and voice projection should be correctly adjusted without rushing. Simple short sentences translate to short statement filled with nickel and dime words should be used. The presenter should not be afraid to repeat words or phrases. Oral communication needs reinforcement. Simple words, use of real names and surnames should always be used instead of pronouns. The subject should be kept close to the verb to close the gap between the doer and the activity. Vox pop occupies only a minute of the airtime and the reporter should balance the selection after reaching out to many people.