a) Authoritarian
b) Libertarian
c) Soviet and communist
d) Social responsibility
e) Development theory
f) Democratic Participant theory
In this presentation six press model which among includes authoritarian theory, libertarian, soviet and communist, social responsibility, development and democratic participant theory will be discussed. Clear example that supports the theory will be given. However, various scholars like Siebert and Schramm (1956) argues that the first two theories were initiated for the press and the other two are general. Again development and democratic and participant theory were crafted to cater for the third developing world. Roelfse (1996) and McQuail (1987) asserts that the fifth and sixth theories gives a full description of a new kind of the press-government-public relationship which has in recent years developed in reaction to deficiencies, such as corruption and abuse of power in traditional democratic, free market societies. Key terms like normative authoritarian, libertarian, soviet, development and democracy will be defined within the context of the presentation.
The term normative can be defined as what the media should be like. Oosthuizen (2001) says that societal expectations about media conduct are articulated by the public philosophies of communication. These philosophers were initially dubbed social theories of the press and later became known as “normative media theories”. The theories were the result of, and culminated in the making of policy for the media in different societies, in that they led to a greater or less degree on implicit and explicit control. Oosthuizen (1989:12) on the basis of the particular social structure, and more specifically the political structure, every normative theory maps out a particular role or pattern of control for the media.
Fourie (2001) notes that by normative theory it basically means ideal views from different perspectives and within different conditions about the role of the press in society. In short it means “the press should or could do this or that” Roelofse (1996:48-60) argues that normative theories are thus mainly concerned with the freedom of, or restrictions on the newspaper industry in various situations and how this impacts on the function of the press (media) society
Authoritarian Theory
Authoritarian theory is the oldest of the media theories and originated in the authoritarian climate of the late renaissance, and with the development of the printing press. The good example is the media operation in Yugoslavia during the time of Milosevic. Part of the popular uprising against his rule in October 2000, was to attack media institutions which had no other function but to publicise Milosevic and his government’s propaganda. In an authoritarian society the press was seen as a very powerful tool, and these in power the clergy and politicians used it to convey the information they wanted the public to have. The potentates also controlled the press and reserved the right to license publication and censor content. (Siebert et al 1963) Judging from this observation the emphasis was therefore on the control of the press to ensure the promotion of the interest of those in power. For example Fourie (2001) notes that “ The fascism that is the philosophy and practice of the absolute power of the state and the subservience of the individual found in Hitler’s Germany, Mussolini’s Italy , Franco’s Spain, South Africa’s apartheid regime and in many African such as Zimbabwe is and was rooted in authoritarianism and totalitarianism. This gave much freedom to the rulers, little or no freedom to the ruled, and which defined press freedom as a right vested in the state (Fourie 2001).
Oosthuizen (2002) says that according to authoritarian theory, the media are expected:
a) Not to undermine the vested power and interests of the public
b) To be subordinate to vested power and authority
c) Not to contravene the prevailing moral and political values.
Deviation from the above stated points can lead to censorship, criminal charges being brought against media practitioners or institutes that for example, criticize the authorities’ deviation from policy or violate moral codes. In addition, licensing of the media with specific conditions that must be adhered to. In Zimbabwe from year 2000 to 2008 many journalist who reported negatively about the government’s corruption, ruthless, violation of human right and injustice by top officials were arrested, tortured and incarcerated. Hence although it is a contested terrain to claim that Zimbabwean media used authoritarian theory, the above facts justifies the claim.
Libertarian Theory
This theory is closely linked to the rise of democracy and the political, economic and religious freedom associated with this form of a government that emerged in the late seventieth century (Roelofse 1996:56) People are regarded as rational beings that could make their own decisions, by using information supplied to them by the press. Fourie (2001) suggest that libertarian theory enables those masses to distinguish between the truth and falsehood, and between good and evil. The search for truth is regarded as an inalienable natural right. The United States of America (USA) and Britain have had this fourth estate along with the legislative, executive and judicial authorities in the governing process (Siebert et al 1963:3-4)
Oosthuzein (2002) argues that freedom of the press was seen as essential to inform the free market place of ideas. Diverse press content was essential for the proper functioning of society, where different views had to compete for supremacy among the populace who could make up their own minds about what they wanted to support. In terms of this media theory: The media should be free of external censorship for example the government’s interference in content. Every individual or group should be free to publish and distribute information for instance if one wants to start a newspaper, they should be able to do so. Editorial attacks on government or political parties are acceptable, since the new media is expected to be the public’s watch dog as far as government conduct is concerned. For instance, what daily news was doing was health for the well being of the society especially with regard to free dissemination of information. There should be no coercion to publish anything including government initiatives. False reporting is viewed in the same light as published the truth. No restriction should be placed on the acquisition of information through legal channels. Again they should be no restriction on the export and import of messages across national boarders, thereby promoting the free flow of information (McQuail 1989: 89)
It can be argued that the emerging of global conglomerate such as Disney, News Corporation, Cable News network, Bertelsmann, Viacom and many others is a good example that supports the libertarian press theory. On the other hand it can be argued that in Zimbabwe libertarian theory exist, since we have independent media such as The Financial gazette, The Standard, The Independent and many more. However, it can be argued that the claim that Zimbabwe have and believe that libertarian theory should be incorporated to the media run; electronic media has failed to honor that. In Zimbabwe electronic media has the monopoly and is dominated by the state. Zimbabwean government uses all media especially the state controlled one as a mouth piece to further their interest at the expense of the masses. Unlike in Europe were the government since the time of Reagan administration in the United State of America has detached itself from having influence and control of media. Hence media controls itself and fulfils the oligopoly firm theory against monopoly that has no respect for the masses interest.
The Social Responsibility Theory
Exponent of this theory attempt to reconcile the ideas of freedom and independence with responsibility towards society (Roelofse 1996:53-54). The social responsibility theory in based on the following premises (McQuail 1987:116-118)
The media have an important function to fulfill in society, especially with regard to supporting democratic- political principles. The Media are under an obligation to fulfill their societal functions, especially with regard to the transmission of information and the creation of a forum for different viewpoints. The independence of the media should be emphasized in relation to their responsibility towards society. Fourie (2001:9) say that this theory offers two types of solutions to the problem of reconciling freedom with social responsibility and these are; the development of public institutions, independent of government, for the control of the broadcasting industry. For instance, institutions such as the Independent Communication Authority of South Africa (ICASA) and the independent Broadcasting Complaints Commission (IBCC) and all these are from South Africa. In Zimbabwe social responsibility is fostered by the Voluntary Media Council of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Union of Journalist, MISA and MMPZ.
Secondly and lastly the continuing development of professionalism, which should advance and nurture balanced and impartial news presentation ( compare for instance the plight and recommendation of the South Africa Human Rights Commission for the development of professionalism and training in South Africa Journalism. All the above mentioned facts are there to reinforce social responsibility.
In addition, McQuail (ibid) identifies the following basic principles of the social responsibility theory about the media as follows; the media should accept certain responsibility towards society. For instance media should not defame, lie and invade in someone spheres of private. Furthermore, the media should fulfill their responsibilities mainly by setting professional standards with regard to the supply of information and the truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance of their reporting. For instance what was done by “The Daily News” about the Magunje woman as well as what the state run newspaper “The Herald “ did in 2008 to publish pictures of Pius Ncube naked was immoral and breach of ethics. Such stories shows lack of social responsibility and should be condoned for good media coverage that do not offend the public who are the consumers of the content. Again media should avoid publishing information that can lead to crime, violence or social disruption, as well as information that can offend ethnic or religious minorities (Fourie 2001) In fact the media should collectively represent all social groups and reflect the diversity of society by giving people access to a variety of viewpoints and the right to react to these views points. In other word as much as media is suppose to set the agenda, they should also function as a free market of ideas, thereby creating public spheres to the community they are serving( Mundt 1993:13)
Soviet Communist Theory
The fourth theory that is the Soviet Communist theory as initiated by Siebert and Schramm (1963) is a theory that was founded after the Russian Revolution of 1917. It exhibits authoritarian characteristics. Under this dispensation, the media are owned and controlled by the state, which represents the working class (proletariat). The working class owns the natural resources of production including the media, as directed through their membership of the communist party. In line with the views of Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Fredrick Engels (1820-1895), the communist press was to have no profit motive. The absence of advertisements was supposed to rid the media system of any capitalistic economic influence, enabling the media to publish the truth in support of working –class interest. The media were strictly regulated to promote these interests at all times
The soviet communist media theory postulates that the media should act in the interest of and be controlled by the working class. This probably answers the question that is being asked by the Marxist cultural studies scholars like Adorno and Horkheimer (1944), why the working class have failed to over throw the capitalist system. Media apart from being a tool of disseminating information its major aim is economical programmed to generate profit and to continue disseminating the dominant ideology. Again the soviet theory suggest that media should not be privately controlled and that media should perform positive functions for society, including socialization, education, information, motivation and mobilization of the masses. Censorship or other legal measures are justified to prevent or punish transgressions of societal norms. Oosthuizen (1989:12) states that through soviet theory, “the media must reflect a complete and objective view of the world in terms of Marxist-Leninist principles. Hence Roelofse (1996:56) and McQuail (1989:93), agree that media should support progressive (communist) movement in other parts of the world. In terms of control, the media are free under such a dispensation, but only in so far as it promotes the aim of the communist. Censorship and legislation are used to eliminate anti-proletariat media content, for instance about the benefits of capitalism. It can be observed that theoretically the people own the press, but actual control takes place through the Communist party and the government apparatus (Mundt 1993:13)
Moreover, in line with the function of mobilization, the media act as political agitators and propagandist (Oosthuizen 1989). Some of the principles of Soviet Communist theory are still applied in countries such as Soviet Bloc, China, Cuba and many Asiatic states hence such state are still battling to obtain media freedom. In Cuba, the application of this theory has not been restricted to the older or traditional media. British Broadcasting Corporation world reported in 2001 that people in Cuba were still not allowed to register an e-mail address in the name of a private person.
Development Theory
Development theory grew out of the unique circumstances of the Third World Countries, which included the absence of communication infrastructure and professional skills, poverty and illiteracy. The development theory has it that African state should report on development issues in their community such as the building of dams, construction of hospitals, clinics, schools and roads. The initiation of community newspapers such as ZIANA as well as the privately owned newspapers such as “The Sun”, “The Gweru Times”, “Chaminuka” and so forth are there to curtail the developmental theory. Apart from reporting about development such papers were suppose to be close to the community that they exist and promote the local languages such as isiNdebele, Shona and so forth. For instance the existence of new papers that uses local language such as “Umthunywa” from Bulawayo and “Kwayedza” from Harare are a result of development theory. The problem with these papers is that they do not serve the community that they are supposing to. For instance, Gweru Time, have been hijacked by the politicians to further their interest at the expense of the community. The reason is that it is funded by the state (ZANU PF). On the other hand the privately owned community papers such as “The Sun”, instead of serving the Gweru community, it serves the Gweru city Council’s interest dominated by the Movement for Democratic Party (MDC). Further more, Umthunywa as a Bulawayo paper serves the large community of Bulawayo whose dominant language is isiNdebele and Kwayedza serves the people of Harare whose dominant language is Shona.
The developing states are still largely dependent on their previous colonial rulers for their economic survival and media regulation and control. Hence in Zimbabwe our media systems are affected by the Rhodesian administration and media control pattern, this is because we inherited everything from our colonizers. This claim support the dependency theory which has been castigated by Emmanuel Wallenstein, who said that if developing countries are to develop like their colonizers they have to cut the umbilical code that keeps them attached. Although developing states have achieved their political independence like Zimbabwe in 1980, economically the struggle is still on. Hence development theory tries to address the Third World’s continues cultural dependence on the West mass media content. This is supported by the Africa tendency of borrowing news stories western media like BBC, CNN and Disney. (Roelofse 1996)
Oosthuizen (2002:44) asserts that the Third World proponent of this theory want the media to make a definite contribution towards improving the position of developing countries. At the same time, they want to ward off what they see as the potential negative effects of Western-dominated media and new agency reporting on these countries. This theory suggests that the media is expected to make a positive contribution to the national development process; The state should be able to restrict the media if economic interests and the development needs of society are stake. Therefore the good example is the Zimbabwean media law such as OSA, POSA, AIPPA and so forth. Such media laws questions the ownership, fund and the eliciting of private information illegal. Many journalists around Zimbabwe have fallen victim of the above media laws. Again the local media laws support the second aspect pointed by Oosthuizen (2002), when he says that preferential media coverage should be given to information about national, cultural and language issue. Hence the law about 75% local content and media ownership which gives first preference to the Zimbabwean are some amongst the laws that supports this claim.
Again the development theory encourages developing countries to report about their neighbors’ problems and progress. For instance this is way all our national both daily and weekly papers report on the developments that takes place in our neighboring countries such as Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Mozambique. In addition, thie development theory claims that the state has the right to intervene to protect development objectives by restricting and censoring the media. State control and direct control over the media are justified. For instance, the Zimbabwean government have to justify themselves that the initiated the AIPPA, POSA, OSA and so forth for the good of the nation. The problem is that these media laws have invested much power to the minister of information and at time he abuses those powers for his own party benefit. For example, restricting media house and journalist registration is more negative to the independent papers like The Standard and Independent since they act as the watch dog against the abuse of human treatment and corruption by government top officials.
Most of the principles of this theory were clearly articulated by the International Commission for the study of communication also known as the MacBride commission or Nwico Debate. The name of this commission comes after the name its chairperson. The commissions recommendation included; the using the media and communication for national development, allotting more space and time in the media of the industrialized world for events in and background material about the developing world, the right of reply by a country in the case of inaccurate or malicious reporting of international news; training foreign journalist in the language, history, culture of the country they report from to avoid bias and the provision of more news in the media of developing countries about neighboring countries or such countries in other regions (UNESCO 1980;253-272)
Democratic-Participant Theory
Fourie (2001) states that this theory is primarily a reaction to the trends towards commercialization and monopoly-formation in privately controlled mass media, and towards centralization and bureaucratization in the public broadcasting. Proponent of development theory takes issues with the way in which libertarian media report about developing countries. They believe that the media in the developed world exhibit certain inherent flaws when it comes to dealing with the Third World countries. The democratic participant theory is also based on flaws in the current media system, but is viewed from the perspective of the First World. Supporters of this theory argued that democracy, as a system of government, has failed to deliver real representation for citizens at grass root level (Oosthuizen 2002:46)
The focus had to move from representative government to participatory government, in which civil society had to play a more prominent role. The good example is the MISA, MMPZ and others like Kubatana. They have pressure the government in removing the draconian laws that makes it difficult for the journalist to practice their professionalism. MISA have played an important role in assisting both the journalist and certain media house not to get their licenses to operate withdrawn. The democratic –participatory media theory reassesses the role of the media within this framework. The emphasis is primarily on securing access to the media for the citizenry.
The development of this theory was informed by the following factors; a growing concern about the commercialisation of monopoly formation within privately controlled media. The good examples are the online publication in Zimbabwe like The Zimbabwean situation, New Zimbabwe and so forth. This raised questions about whether media users were getting more of the same content of inferior quality, and whether the media were serving the needs of users. In addition, the move towards the centralization of public broadcasting gave rise to concerns about whether public broadcasting was fulfilling its promise to contribute towards the strengthening of democratic process. Development in the media where the emphasis was shifting from mass media catering for everyone to specialist media. Again sociological shift in society resulting from people moving away from city centers into the suburbs where they became part of new communities in which they established parameters for meaningful existence. As a result, local media dealing with issues that directly affect people’s daily lives became more important. The development of new media for instance interactive television, e-mail and the internet, which shifted control of the media away from institutions to the uses.
It can be noted that democratic-participant theory was formulated to account for political, economical and social developments in democratic societies. The basic principles of the theory are that; individual and minorities must be able to claim right of access to the media and have their needs served by the media. Again media content and organizations should be free from political and bureaucratic control. The media must serve the needs and interest of recipients; their existence should not be exclusively linked to the needs of media organizations, professional workers and advertisement. Final the democratic –participant theory assumes that communication is too important to be left to professionals (McQuail 1989, Roelofse 1996:56-60)
References
Biagi (1990) Media Impact: An introduction to Mass media. Sacramento. Wadsworth
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Fourie PJ (2001) The role and function of the Media: South Africa. Lansdowne, Juta
Griffin, EM (1991) A First Look at communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hall
McQuail D (1987) mass Communication Theory: an introduction. London. Sage
Oosthuizen, LM (2002) Media Ethics: In the South African Context. South Africa. Lansdowne. Juta.
Siebert, FS et al (1963) Four Theories of the Press. Urbana: university of iIlions Press
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