Similarities and differences between advertising and propaganda

The term propaganda which is highly contested by many scholars from both the Global North and Global South can be defined as the technique of influencing human action by the manipulation of representation (Lasswell (1927) cited in Severin and Tankard 1988:91). These representations may be spoken, written, pictorial or in a musical form. This makes one to conclude that propaganda is information often inaccurate or biased, which a political organisation, individual publishes or broadcasts in order to influence people. On the other hand, Jowett and O’Donnell (1992:1) argued that propaganda is a form of communication that is different from persuasion, because it attempts to achieve a response that furthers the desired interest of the propagandists. To them, persuasion is transitive and attempts to satisfy the needs of both persuader and persuadee (advertising). From this definition, it can be observed that public opinion and behaviour change can be affected by propaganda. Some scholars viewed “propaganda” as inherent thought and practice in mass culture. This is strongly supported by perception that propaganda functions as purveyor of ideology that is the dominant ideological meaning which is constructed within the mass media. Burnett (1989) viewed propaganda as communication and persuasion. The two terms could be used interchangeably both in literature and communication. The word “advertising” is defined by Biagi (1999) as, any paid form of non personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsor. In this pretext advertising carries the message that comes to you from the people who pay for it. Like propaganda, advertisement can appear in newspapers, books, magazines, radio, television and social media. It could be argued that like advertising, propaganda is communication that can appear in ora-media, print media and electronic media. Boorstein (1998) says the word “advertise” originally meant to take note or to consider. By 1700’s Boorstein asserts that meaning of the word “advertising “ had changed its meaning. To advertise in America shares three characteristics namely, repetition, style and ubiquity. The word style was the coined by Hopkins (1998) as, brilliant writing, which has no place in advertising hence “one should be natural and simple… fishing for buyers, as in fishing for bass, one should not reveal the hook”. Advertising is similar to propaganda as justifies by Fletcher (1988) who says that, in both disciplines the “message is specified by its originator, carried by communication systems and intended to influence and or inform an unknown audience. In support of this view, Severin and Tankard (1988), discussed advertising within the context of propaganda. Propaganda like advertising shapes public opinion and sways the masses towards almost any point of view desired by the communication. For instance, in a rally politicians can use propaganda to further their ideology, control and shape the masses attitudes, ideas and behaviour. The same applies to advertising, where an advertisement can be used to control and shape attitude, ideas and behaviour of the masses. Albeit that both propaganda and advertising can be inaccurate or biased, propaganda is mostly used by politicians rather than business. Gordon (1999) argued that truth is not appropriate ethical norm to apply to advertising and propaganda. In both advertising and propaganda is used as a tool by the dominant class who own businesses and control production. In both the dominant class can perpetuate their ideology, hegemony that is the way one thinking and feel about things and further their political interests. Jacques Ellul (1965) focused on the techniques of propaganda and advertising, notably psychological manipulation, which in technological societies, has certain identical results. Qualter (1962) is perhaps, in this essay the only scholar who claims that unlike advertising which is mainly to present and promote ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsor. Propaganda is a deliberately and systematic attempt to shape perception, manipulate, cognite and direct behaviour to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist. It can be concluded that, while advertising creates images that sells products and services, propaganda creates images that manipulate individuals and services the political interests. Severin and Tankards (1998) posits that both advertising and propaganda are a form of persuasion that is subjective. Again it can be deduced that while propaganda is associated with politics, advertising is associated with economics. References Jowett.G.S and O’Donnell.V. (1992). Propaganda and Persuasion. Second Edition. London. Sage Publication. Biagi.S. (1998). Media Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media. New York: Wadsworth. University of Illions Press. Severin, W.J and Tankard. J.W. (1998). Communication Theories: Origins Methods and Uses in The Mass Media. London. Longman. Carver.D.J., Michael.J and Cameron.J. (1974). Collins English Learners Dictionary. London. Collins and Glasgow. Gordon.A., David and Kittress. J.M. (1999). Controversies in Media Ethics. New York.

English for specific purpose and its four levels

English for Specific Purpose (ESP) can be defined as an approach to language teaching based on the learners needs. ESP is a closely matching teaching content to learners’ requirements (McDonough 1984). She further argued that, ESP courses are those where the syllabus and material are determined in all essentials by the prior analysis of communication needs of the learners needs. However, this represents a limited views of ESP, which she goes on to say refers to “ a plethora of approaches, trend and methodologies based on increasingly sophisticate views of “language”, “communication needs, language skills and so on”. Judging from this observation it can be asserted that ESP is an academic and professional learning in which a supply of language, communicative competences, skills and set methods used for study in an institution should be much greater than one can deal with. It can be observed that ESP is devoted to fulfil the needs of students and as emerging from the need to cope with certain aspects of the language which are closely related to very specific areas of knowledge and their practical application in professional life (Sales 1994:325). This need creates solidarity, meaning, commitment and productivity among learners, therefore leading to English for Academic Purpose (EAP) and English for Occupational Purpose (EOP). EAP and EOP leads the learners to types of ESP like English for Science and technology (EST), English for Business and Economics (EBE), English for Social Sciences (ESS) and English Language Teaching (ELT), leading to four types of ESP. Oladeyo (1994:298) argued that ESP ideally presupposes that the curriculum, syllabus, contents, materials, and teaching activities used for a given purpose should not be adapted to another without first carrying our necessary modifications. What Oladeyo is saying is that a course that has been for teaching language in one subject area cannot be implemented in another without first taking into account the language skills specific to the latter area and making changes to the course accordingly. One can surmise that, ESP is more of an approach to language teaching, the focus of which is the need of the learners, rather than a particular language teaching method. Hutchinson and Waters (987:19) had to say the following about ESP, “…is not a particular kind of language or methodology, or does it consist of a particular types of teaching material”. Understood properly, it is an approach to language learning which based on learners need. It is an approach to language teaching in which all decision as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning. From the above claims it can be deduced that ESP goes beyond the sentence, that is rhetorical or discourse analysis. ESP courses in institutional curriculum create a great need of understanding on how sentences were combined in discourse to produce meaning. The need to identify the organisational patterns in texts and to specify the linguistic means by which these patterns were signalled ensured that these forms would then form the syllabus of ESP courses. In ESP the rhetorical structuring of science text is different from that of commercial text. The discourse of subject-specific academic texts are or were also used to make observation about general discourse to determine the learners needs, thus teaching material based on the discourse approach teach students to recognise textual patterns and discourse markers, mainly by means of text diagramming exercise. There are at least five types of ESP courses which can be studied. The write will discuss the characteristics of only four, which are as follows; EST, EBE, ESS and EAP. (EST) stands for English for Science and Technology, (EBE) stands for English for Business and Economics, (ESS) stands for English for Social Sciences and (EAP) is English for Academic Purpose. English for Science and Technology (EST) is defined by Richard (1976) as concerned with understanding, describing, and explaining the nature of universe. Scientific English assumed that it is used to describe natural phenomena and tends to make wide use of words of Greek and Latin origin. Their meaning are standardised internationally, as well as various, similarly recognised symbols and conventions associated with mathematics concepts. In (EST) the English used is more difficult to understand. Therefore this type of ESP has been criticised for its content which is easier to learn than the English in which it is couched. It is strongly argued that EST has more passive construction than active, “the most prevalent of these are impersonal passive such as, It was observed that… or it should be noted that…” (Huggins 1985:31). In addition, the modal auxiliaries like, “may and should” are widely used. This type of (ESP) seems to be only imparting knowledge of the subject without concerning themselves with skills that the learner needs in order to learn and apply those concepts effectively. Furthermore, on the other hand, technology is “concerned much on how to design, operate and control machines, devices and instruments. Richard (1976) notes that technological English tends to use special vocabulary which are cumbersome for one who is not in that field to know the meaning of it, figures and mathematical symbols which also are difficult to master, to describe technological objects and concepts. For instance, “the total wrk done during the cycle can be presented scientifically as follows: W=w1+w2+w3+w4 W1=12, W2=23, W3=34, W4=41 Holdings (1997:12) states that, “English for Science and Technology is concerned with statement of general truth with description of processes, properties or functions, with deduction and hypothesis. In any case EST may be either for academic or occupational purpose. Hence (EST) is a leading source of international communication which uses diagrams, symbols and English Language which is tailor-made for that field. English for Business and Economics (EBE), is essential especially to business and women which improves skills required for conducting business. According to Holden (1977:12), “… these skills will be as varied as they are for students of science”. The business person needs English for Occupational Purpose (EOS) and English for Academic Purpose (EAP). The good example to support this assertion can be reflected below as follows; Feelings about business prospects in the next year % YEARS 2001 2000 1999 1998 Strongly Positive 44 69 58 64 Moderately Positive 50 31 32 43 Neutral 3 0 7 0 Moderately/Strong Negative 3 0 3 0 Attitude survey of senior agency executives The above example is from the AdFocus?Supplementary to the Financial Mail/May 18 (2001:49) South Africa, shows us that (EBE) uses diagrams, figures and English language as used in international commerce, industry and administration. The (EBE) uses several modes of communication, which appears in form of oral, group, intercultural and written communication. The purpose of the course is to increase competence and performance in business communication. The (EBE) need to be used by well informed people. Not all the people can work out the meaning of (EBE) language. Ambiguities are the major problem. English for Social Science (ESS), which is the third type of ESP is sometimes referred to in the literature. It can be used for cultural orientation of students who study special subjects in English. Like English for Science and Technology (EST) and English for Business and Economics (EBE), it uses language which is recognised countrywide. As pointed by McDonough (1984), it can be used to closely matching teaching content to learner’s requirements. (ESS) can be used both for Academic and Occupational purpose. This course has the strength of creating individuals who are well informed, proficiency and committed in their field of specialisation. For example, English students at University level can be perceived as people who are well articulated in the language use and are communicative competent. Since it can be viewed a used for Academic Purpose it helps to impart knowledge as well as skills. It also reinforces professionalism, thereby promoting productivities among graduates as well as to individual. On the other hand, it instils a certain ideology in the mind of certain people, who can hardly accept change. For example, it discourages multi-tasked individuals who cannot participate in all courses, but have only one field. Again language varies from one society to another and from individual to another. Hence the same word can mean different things. For example, if one talks about the term, “minutes”, to the secretary it means a recording of proceedings of a meeting, to a businessman it means the official notes authorising action. The fourth type of ESP which is English for Academic Purpose (EAP) is taught at school and tertiary level as support system for students who are second language users of English. Kenned and Bolitho (1984) says, “Within educational institutions as a support system. EAP can be used alongside other studies or before. For example at Zimbabwe open University (ZOU), students in Bachelor for English and Communication Studies (BAECS) are taught to be professionals in English and Communications. This helps students as well as other individuals to be conversant in English as a second language. Rivers (1993:331) says that, “ as effective ESP course is one which produces learners who in the end are capable of communicating as a high level in the targeted language, conduct negotiations, explaining processes and procedures, extracting meaning from reports, instruction and scientific articles, conveying accurate information in writing. At tertiary level, EAP courses produces graduates who can communicate effectively in English, business field, science and technology and social sciences. Under this course individuals can communicate effectively in different setting, whether social and occupational. In higher learning institutions like universities and colleges lectures are good examples of English for Academic Purpose. The deliver lectures using perfect English Language. It creates areas of specialisation which is an advantage in the capitalist system in our contemporary society. Hence professionals like Journalists, Economists, Psychologists, Historians, Scientists, Sociologists, Geologists and many more to mention. It also helps to classify people in different social echelons. It acts negatively on the other hand to the non-literate people. One need to be learned to fit well to ESP four levels and to promote their discipline linguistically to enhance effective communication and professionalism both from the Global North and the Global South. It can be concluded that ESP result in the development of language control proceeds through creativity, which is nurtured by interactive, participatory activities. Mountford (1988:78) asserts that ESP, concerns itself mainly with the most effective ways in which language can be used in specific academic or occupational situation. References: Dube, C. M, (2004). English for Specific Purpose and Communication: ZOU University, Zimbabwe, Harare. Holden, S (ed), (1977). English for Specific Purpose, Modern English Publication. LDT Mansfield. Hutchinson, J. and Waters, A, (1987). English for Specific Purpose: A Learning Centred Approach, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Kerr, J. (1969). Changing the Curriculum, London, Hodder and Straighton. Klein, W. (1986). Second Langauge Acquisition, Britain, Cambridge University Press. Owen, R.G. (1993). Organisational Behaviour in Education. 8th Edition, London, Allyn and Bacon. Stravens, P. (1980). Teaching English as an International Language. From Practice to principle, Pergamum Press. Oxford. Oladyo, J. (1904). Teaching ESP in Developing Multilingual Societies in Brekke M et al (eds), pp. 298-312. McDonough.J. (1984). ESP in Perspective. London. Collins ELT. Rivers, W.M. (1993). Communicating in a second Lan