MEDIA ETHICS

Mr C Masuku (Midlands State University)
Masuku.caven@gmail.com,masuku.caven@gmail.com or masukuc@msu.ac.zw

2011-03-01

Presentation for Gweru Press Club


MEDIA ETHICS


The term “ “Ethics”, is a contested terrain that can be defined from a multiplicity of ways. Several scholars under here will be quoted in their attempt to define “ethics” in journalism. Ethics are very salient and journalist should adhere to it for professionalism and credibility in their day to day business of gathering, processing and disseminating of news to the widely dispersed audiences with various norms and values and ethical traits.

Ethics is broadly understood as a fundamental factor that deals and plays a role in human life and interaction between individuals, and the individual and society. Ronning (2002) notes that “it is about how we should live our lives as media practitioners. In addition, ethics applies to issues of virtues and vices, and questions basic principles and rules in the evaluation of human conduct and social relations. It is concerned about character and conduct. Ethics can also be understood as the systematic study of morality and examines basic moral attitudes, dispositions, beliefs, standards, principles, ideals and practices (Ronning 2002)

Nevertheless, Days (2000:3) submit that, media ethics involves the accepted values or moral norms of a society's notion about what is right or wrong and the distinction between virtue and vice. It can therefore be argued that ethics defines what is morally acceptable using values as the basis of human behaviour, where the decision about right or wrong are made ( Seib and Fitzpatrick 1997:3) Ethics is seldom practiced in the same way in different societies and cultures.

Moreover, Hohenberg (1976: 320) argued that reporters and editors as a rule are much more concerned about ethical consideration than their critics believe. The old notion that you “get the story and to hell with everything else have no responsible defenders”.

It is important and can not be overemphasised that code of ethics can be; (i) aspirational (what we aspire to be) (ii) educational (this is how we can address ethical questions),(iii) regulatory (this is what we do if the code is breached) or a mixture of all three (Frankel 1989 ,Sri Lanker Press Institute ). Chadiwick (1995) states that ethical codes usually have the following segments: (i0 aspirations, (ii) standards, (iii) Disclosure, (IV) value and Enforcement

In addition, Professor Black (1997) says that “ethics entails making tough decision-not the obvious choices between right and wrong, but the tough choices between not-quite completely-right, or even choosing between the lesser of two wrongs.” One salient issue about ethics is that; “Ethical journalism can never be guaranteed simply by resorting to a list of dos and don'ts, Emmanuel Levinas (1969:178) one of the French philosopher said that;
“It is only in approaching the other that i attended to myself... In discourse i expose
myself to the questioning of others, and the urgency of the responses acuteness of
the present-engenders me for responsibility; as responsible i am brought to my final
reality”.

Therefore judging from the above quotation media practitioners should be guided and be influenced by others, that is the society at large. Their discourse should not harm others and should always tell both side of the story without taking sides. Every word, message and expression from media houses to the audiences should be a reality. Facts instead of rumours or hearsay should not find its way to the media.


There are three ethical philosophies postulated by Brook et al (1998) that guides and oils the codes of ethics in journalism as follows;

Absolutism ethics:
Absolutism holds that there is a fixed set of principles or law, from which there should be no deviation (Brook et al 1998). Principles become rules that in turn, are treated like laws. Some refer to this kind of ethical philosophy as “legalism”. This philosophy is based on the meritocracy that “if it is wrong to lie, it always is wrong to lie. If a rapist asks where his intended victim is the absolutist could not lie to save a life. If the action is right, it does not matter whether a friend is killed. The consequences are irrelevant. Another scholar Harcup (2007:138) says that; “respect for truth is the first principle in journalism and journalism is about informing and empowering the citizens of a society, holding the powerful to account, and facilitate a public sphere of rational discussion. An absolutist or legalistic ethical philosophy could spawn a conscientious objector who not only would refuse to take up arms but who would refuse even to go to war as a medic.

Furthermore, Brook et al (1998:462) state that “absolutist journalist is concerned only with whether an event is newsworthy. If it is interesting, timely, significantly or important, it is to be reported regardless of the consequences”. The absolutism philosophy is attractive to some journalists because it assumes the need for full disclosure. Nothing news-worth ever is withheld from the public. In the end, these journalists believe, publishing without fear of the consequences or without favour for one group's interests over another is the highest ethical principle. This ethical practice indicates the seriousness by media practitioner in their day to day business of news coverage.

Antinomian ethics:
Antinomianism rejects all rules and in effect, all ethics. According to Brooks et al (1998), “the antinomian has neither a predetermined standard of conduct nor moral rules”. Actions in any situation are spontaneous and unpredictable. Antinomian journalists are not concerned with motives, consequences or obligations. That does not mean that they would always lie, cheat or steal. Antinomian journalist might pose as someone other than a journalist in an attempt to gather information on some occasions, and they would not be bothered by doing it. Antinomian's have faith in their ability to extemporize in any situation. No premeditation or preparation is required. While the concept of absolutism is attractive to many journalists, few chose antinomianism. The principle that the press has a responsibility to the reader implies a concern for the consequences that antinomians do not have.

Situation Ethics
Situation ethics lies between the two extremes of antinomianism and absolutism. Unlike antinomianism, situationism does not hold that everything is relative. The Situationism knows, understands and accepts the ethical maxims of the community and its heritage and weighs them carefully before making a decision (Brook et al 1998). However, unlike the absolutism, the situationist is prepared to compromise them or to set them aside completely if unselfish love for one's neighbour demands it. For example, a situationist most likely belies that lying is unethical, but if a rapist ask where his intended victim is a situationist would lie to save a life. In a broad sense then, for the person holding to situation ethics, people always come first. Sometimes this takes the form of utilitarianism. The prevailing ethics in journalism today is what Mill (1960) called “utilitarianism”; the greatest good for the greatest number.

It can be argued that the purpose of codes of ethics in journalism helps a group define and redefine itself, declares to others what the group is about with regard to purpose, values and standards. Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ) 2005, states that;

“In the context of journalism, the code of ethics is seen as a fair and comprehensive
account for events and issues, founded and presented in truth for “Public enlightenment”
and serve as a “forerunner of justice”

This means in essence that for the news media to serve the public well, it must be free from distorting pressure exerted by politicians or economic forces and must continue to obtain, keep and increase freedom in order to be trusted and protected by the general public and to gain the support of readers, listeners, viewers to which accountability is to be rendered (Independent Press Council (IPC) 2005).

It is salient to note that there is no single media system that is better than the other. Whether media system is self-regulated or government-controlled, there will be different aspects of ethics that need to be addressed. The code of ethics practiced by journalist is dependent on the defined and accepted values or moral norms in the particular society where the journalists are, and these defined codes of ethics determines the right and the wrong (International Journalists network (2005a).

The Society of professional Journalists (SPJ) asserts that;

“The duty of the journalists is to further those ends by seeking truth and
providing a comprehensive account of events and uses. Conscientious
journalists from all media and specialties strive to serve the public with
thoroughness and honesty. Professional integrity is the cornerstone of a
journalist's credibility...”

The most important ethical codes of journalism that permeates both in print, broadcasting and on-line journalism are as follows;
(i)Seeking the truth and reporting it
(ii)Fairness
(iii) Minimize Harm
(iv) Act Independently
(v)Accountability

Journalist as professionals need to adhere to ethics and should often ask themselves the following questions;
(i) What is public interest?
(ii)What precisely, is the public interest here?
(iii) How, precisely, will it be served by my actions?
(iv)Am i confident i can defend my answers in public?
(MEAA (1997) Ethics in Journalism)

1. Seek truth and reporting it
A journalist should be honest, fair and courageous in gathering, reporting and interpreting information. Professional journalist

Test the accuracy of information from all sources and exercise care to avoid inadvertent error. Deliberate distortion is never permissible.

Journalist should diligently seek to subjects of news stories to give them the opportunity to respond to allegations of wrongdoings.

Journalist must identify sources whenever feasible. The public is entitled to as much information as possible on sources reliability.

Journalist worth the salt should always question sources' motives before promising anonymity.
Journalist and newsrooms must clarify conditions attached to any promises made in exchange for information.
A good and professional journalist keeps promises
Media practitioners must make certain that headlines, news teases and promotional material, photos, video, audio, graphics, sound bites and quotations do not misrepresent. They should not oversimplify or highlight incidents out of contexts.

Journalist and media houses should label montages and photo illustrations.
Media practitioners must avoid misleading re-enactments or stage news events. If re-enactment is necessary to tell a story, label it.

Journalist must at all cost avoid under-cover or other surreptitious methods of gathering information except when traditional open methods will not yield information vital to the public.

Use of such methods for professionalism seek should be explained as part of the story.

Never plagiarize information. Plagiarism is tantamount to shop lifting.
A professional journalist examines their own cultural values and avoids imposing those values on others.
Avoid stereotyping by race, gender, age, religion, ethnicity, geography, sexual orientation, disability, physical appearance or social status.

Journalist at times should support views, even views that are repugnant.

Give voice to the voiceless, officials and unofficial sources of information
Journalist should recognise a special obligation to ensure that the public business is conducted in the open and that government records are open to inspection.

(IJNET (2005a) Singapore code of ethics: Journalist’s code of professional Conduct, International Journalist's Network)

2. Fairness

RONNING (2002:86) STATE THAT TO ASK FOR FAIRNESS AND BALANCE IS TO ASK THAT EVALUATE LANGUAGE BE AVOIDED THAT THE MATERIAL SHOULD NOT BE SLANTED.GENERAL CRITICISMS OF NOTIONS OF FAIRNESS AND BALANCE ARE THAT THEY ARE LIMITED VIRTUES, TAKE THE MIDDLE LINE AND THUS EXCLUDE VIEWS THAT ARE MORE CONTROVERSIAL.

(A)Fair and reasonable opportunity to reply should be given to ordinary people or organizations in respect of factually incorrect statements endangering their reputation, dignity, honour, feelings, privacy and office. The reply should be confined to the complainants’ version of facts and no longer than necessary to correct the alleged inaccuracy.

ON THE RECORD: INFORMATION ABOUT TO BE USED AND ATTRIBUTED TO THE SOURCE BY NAME.
ON BACKGROUND: INFORMATION ABLE TO BE USED BUT NOT ATTRIBUTED TO THE SOURCE BY NAME.
OFF THE RECORD:INFORMATION NOT BE USED AT ALL. AGREEMENTS SHOULD BE MADE BEFORE THE MAIN CONVERSATION WITH THE SOURCE STARTS NOT AFTER INFORMATION IS GIVEN

(b) newspapers or journalists who respond to a complainant's reply other than to apologise or regret the error, must then be prepared to offer the aggrieved party a fresh opportunity to reply
(sri lanka press institute)

Therefore journalist should avoid at all cost to produce inaccuracy or distorted information, surreptitious gathering of information (eg) undercover techniques, deception and duplicity, subterfuge etc.
(Sri Lanka Press Institute)

3. Minimize harm
Ethical journalist treat sources, subjects and colleagues as human beings deserving of respect Above all journalist should among other things;
(a) Show compassion for those who may be affected adversely by news coverage.
(b) Use special sensitivity when dealing with children and inexperienced sources or subjects.
(c)Recognize that gathering and reporting information may cause harm or discomfort. Pursuit of news is not a license for arrogance.

(d) Recognize that private people have a greater right to control information about themselves than do public officials and others who seek power, influence and attention. It is only an overriding public need can justify intrusion into anyone's privacy.
(e) Avoid pandering to lurid curiosity.

(f) Be judicious about naming criminals suspects before the formal filing of charges.
At last balance a criminal suspects fair trial rights with the publics right to be informed.
(SPJ (2005) SPJ Code of Ethics)


4. Act Independently
Journalist's should be free of obligation to any interest other than the publics right to know. Therefore a journalist should adhere to the following practices;
(a) Avoid conflict of interest, real or perceived

(b)Remain free of associates and activities that may compromise integrity or damage credibility.

(c)Refuse gifts, favours, fees, free travel and special treatment, and political involvement, public office and service in community organizations if they compromise journalistic integrity.

(d) Disclose unavoidable conflicts.

(e) Be vigilant and courageous about holding those with power accountable.

(f) Deny favoured treatment to advertisement and special interests and resist their pressure to influence news coverage.

(g) Be wary of sources offering information for favours or money avoid bidding for news.
(IJNET (2005a) Singapore Code of Ethics: International Journalists Network)

5.be accountable
media houses and journalist should be accountable to their readers, listeners, viewers and each other. in addition, journalist should;
(a) clarify and explain news coverage and invite dialogue with the public.
(b) encourage the public to voice grievances against the news media
(c)admit mistakes and correct them promptly
it can be argued that journalist owe it to the public

6.objective reality
it is argued that journalist owe it to the public to report things that are objectively true, although this is not always possible. Given little time reporters have to check on the facts they are reporting (Ronning 2002) in objectivity the reporter write factually without being coloured by biases. this is an ideal-writing without any prejudices, distancing oneself from the facts. objectivity is the opposite of subjectivity (Misa 2002). in addition, empiricism plays a big role in objectivity. objectivity also means writing fairly and that the concept presumed neutrality in journalism. it is important for journalist to cross check what sources are telling them with other sources to ensure that what they finally report corresponds to the objective reality. Ronning (2002:122) say that in Africa “vendetta journalism” has been practiced. THIS IS UNTRUE BUT STILL GOES AHEAD AND REPORTS it so that they square up or hurt their enemy who is the subject of news. Vendetta journalism is clearly unethical

7. PLAGIARISM
MEDIA PRACTITIONERS MUST NOT ENGAGE IN PLAGIARISM. PLAGIARISM CONSIST OF MAKING US OF ANOTHER PERSON’S WORD, PICTURES OR IDEAS WITHOUT PERMISSION AND WITHOUT PROPER ACKNOWLEDGEMENT AND ATTRIBUTION OF THE SOURCE OF THOSE WORDS, PICTURES OR IDEAS (INTERNATIONAL MEDIA SUPPORT 2009)

8.BRIBES AND INDUCEMENTS
MEDIA PRACTITIONERS AND MEDIA INSTITUTIONS MUST NOT PUBLISH OR SUPPRESS A REPORT OR OMIT OR ALTER VITAL FACTS IN THAT REPORT IN RETURN FOR PAYMENT OF MONEY OR FOR ANY OTHER GIFT OR REWARD.
((INTERNATIONAL MEDIA SUPPORT 2009)

9.Confidentiality of sources

confidentiality is associated with many profession, including medical doctors, lawyers, social workers and accounts and is central to journalistic ethics. every journalist has a moral obligation to protect confidential sources of information, until that source authorities otherwise. The principle of confidentiality imposes a duty on the journalist to with hold the names of sources from third parties. An illustration of the problem surrounding confidentiality is the case where in October 1992, the editor and a journalist of the Zimbabwe weekly financial gazette were called before a parliamentary committee investigating corruption by senior officials. in 1933, the then editor of the Bulawayo chronicle Sydney Veats, was imprisoned for refusing to reveal a source (Ronning 2002:74)



The journalist shall regard as grave professional offences the following:
* plagiarism; * malicious misrepresentation;
* calumny, slander, libel, unfounded accusations;
* acceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration of either publication or
suppression.(IFJ 1954)

It can be concluded that journalist should adhere to the ethical norms in order for them to produce credible information that is free from distortion and credible to the audiences. The plethora of the ethics quoted from various scholars reflects that a journalist worth a name should be faithful. In a summary journalist should be truthfully, fair, minimise harm, remain independent and to be accountable in the news coverage and production.



















REFERENCES
Berry D (ed) (2000) Ethics and media Culture; Practices and representations. Oxford. Focal Press.
Brooks et al (1998) News Reporting and Writing. USA. St Martins Press.
Day (2000) Ethics in Media Communications; Cases and Controversies 3rd Edition. Belmont, CA. Wadsworth.
Emmanuel L (1969) Totality and infinity: An Essay on Exteriority, Pittsburgh, Dusque ne University Press.
Hohenburg J (1976) The professional Journalists Fourth Edition. London. University of Kansas.
IFJ Declaration of principles on the Conduct of Journalists (1954); Amended by the 1986 World Congress.
IJNET (2005a) Singapore Code of Ethics: Journalists' Code of Professional Conduct, International Journalists Network.
http://www.ijnet.org/FE Article/Codeethics.asp (Accessed 20 July 2005)
Independent Press Council (IPC) (2005) About this Site; Independent Press Councils
http://www.PressCouncils.org/htm/frameset.php; (Accessed 21 August 2005)
Ronning H (2002) Media Ethics: An Introduction. South Africa. Juta and Co
Seib P and Fitzpatrick K (1997) Journalism Ethics. Orlando: Harcourt Brace and Co.
Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ) (2005) SPJ Code of Ethics Society of Professional Journalists
http://www.spj.org/ethics.code.asp: (Accessed 21 August 2005)